Unit 3: Development and Learning

How we grow, change, and acquire new behaviors across the lifespan

Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Stages – Click to Reveal

Sensorimotor Stage
Age: 0-2 years
Key Development: Learning through senses and actions
Major Achievement: Object permanence (understanding that objects exist even when not seen)
Example: Baby realizes mom still exists even when she leaves the room
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Preoperational Stage
Age: 2-7 years
Key Development: Language and symbolic thinking
Limitations: Egocentric (can’t see other perspectives); lacks conservation
Example: Child thinks tall glass has more water than short wide glass with same amount
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Concrete Operational Stage
Age: 7-11 years
Key Development: Logical thinking about concrete events
Major Achievement: Understands conservation, classification, and seriation
Example: Can arrange sticks from shortest to tallest; understands 5+3=3+5
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Formal Operational Stage
Age: 12+ years
Key Development: Abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking
Major Achievement: Can think scientifically, consider possibilities, plan systematically
Example: Can solve “What if” questions; understands algebra and metaphors
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Key Concepts

Schema
A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. Like mental file folders for understanding the world.
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Assimilation
Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas. Example: A child calls all four-legged animals “doggie”
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Accommodation
Adapting current schemas to incorporate new information. Example: Child learns some four-legged animals are “cats” not “doggies”
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Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s 8 Stages – Click to Reveal

Trust vs. Mistrust
Age: 0-1 year
Crisis: Will caregivers meet my needs?
Outcome: Basic trust or mistrust in the world
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Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
Age: 1-3 years
Crisis: Can I do things myself?
Outcome: Independence or self-doubt
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Initiative vs. Guilt
Age: 3-6 years
Crisis: Can I explore and try new things?
Outcome: Sense of purpose or guilt about desires
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Industry vs. Inferiority
Age: 6-12 years
Crisis: Can I master skills and compete?
Outcome: Competence or feelings of inadequacy
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Identity vs. Role Confusion
Age: 12-18 years
Crisis: Who am I? What are my values?
Outcome: Strong identity or confusion about self
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Intimacy vs. Isolation
Age: Young adulthood
Crisis: Can I form close relationships?
Outcome: Love and connection or loneliness
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Generativity vs. Stagnation
Age: Middle adulthood
Crisis: Can I contribute to the next generation?
Outcome: Productivity or self-absorption
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Integrity vs. Despair
Age: Late adulthood
Crisis: Did I live a meaningful life?
Outcome: Wisdom and acceptance or regret
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Learning: Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

Key Terms – Click to Reveal

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response WITHOUT learning.
Example: Food, loud noise, puff of air to eye
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Unconditioned Response (UR)
The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the US.
Example: Salivation to food, fear to loud noise, eye blink to puff of air
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
An originally neutral stimulus that, after pairing with US, comes to trigger a response.
Example: Bell (after pairing with food), white rat (after pairing with loud noise)
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Conditioned Response (CR)
The learned response to the CS.
Example: Salivation to bell, fear of white rat
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Acquisition
Initial stage of learning when CS and US are repeatedly paired and CR gradually strengthens
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Extinction
Diminishing of a CR when CS is repeatedly presented WITHOUT the US
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Spontaneous Recovery
Reappearance of an extinguished CR after a rest period (without any new pairings)
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Generalization
Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.
Example: Little Albert feared not just white rat but also white rabbit, Santa’s beard
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Discrimination
Learning to respond ONLY to a specific CS and not to similar stimuli.
Example: Dog salivates to 1000 Hz tone but not 900 Hz tone
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Rotating Quiz: Classical Conditioning

Question 1 of 8
Q1: In Pavlov’s experiment, what was the conditioned stimulus?
Food
Salivation
Bell
The dog
Q2: When a CR decreases because the CS is no longer paired with the US, this is:
Extinction
Generalization
Discrimination
Acquisition
Q3: A student feels anxious when entering the classroom where they failed a test. This is an example of:
Operant conditioning
Classical conditioning
Observational learning
Insight learning
Q4: After extinction, an extinguished response can reappear. This is called:
Recovery
Renewal
Reacquisition
Spontaneous recovery
Q5: Little Albert generalized his fear of a white rat to other white furry objects. What is this?
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
Higher-order conditioning
Latent learning
Q6: In classical conditioning, before conditioning occurs, the US naturally causes:
The CS
The CR
The UR
Nothing
Q7: Taste aversion is unusual because it:
Requires many pairings
Can occur with just one pairing
Only happens in humans
Cannot be extinguished
Q8: Garcia’s research showed rats easily learn to associate:
Taste with illness
Lights with illness
Sounds with illness
All stimuli equally with illness
Learning: Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Reinforcement vs. Punishment – Click to Reveal

Positive Reinforcement
Definition: ADDING something pleasant to INCREASE behavior
Examples: Praise, food, money, good grades, privileges
Effect: Behavior becomes MORE likely
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Negative Reinforcement
Definition: REMOVING something unpleasant to INCREASE behavior
Examples: Taking aspirin removes headache, buckling seatbelt stops beeping, doing homework removes nagging
Effect: Behavior becomes MORE likely
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Positive Punishment
Definition: ADDING something unpleasant to DECREASE behavior
Examples: Scolding, spanking, extra chores, ticket for speeding
Effect: Behavior becomes LESS likely
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Negative Punishment
Definition: REMOVING something pleasant to DECREASE behavior
Examples: Taking away phone, time-out, losing privileges, grounding
Effect: Behavior becomes LESS likely
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Remember: Positive = Adding something | Negative = Removing something | Reinforcement = Increases behavior | Punishment = Decreases behavior

Schedules of Reinforcement – Click to Reveal

Fixed-Ratio (FR)
Schedule: Reinforcement after a SET number of responses
Examples: Pay for every 10 items produced, buy 10 coffees get 1 free
Response pattern: High rate with pause after reinforcement
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Variable-Ratio (VR)
Schedule: Reinforcement after UNPREDICTABLE number of responses
Examples: Slot machines, fishing, sales commissions
Response pattern: High, STEADY rate; most resistant to extinction
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Fixed-Interval (FI)
Schedule: Reinforcement for first response after a SET time period
Examples: Weekly paycheck, monthly bill
Response pattern: Low rate, increases as time for reinforcement approaches
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Variable-Interval (VI)
Schedule: Reinforcement for first response after UNPREDICTABLE time intervals
Examples: Pop quizzes, checking email, fishing
Response pattern: Steady, MODERATE rate
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Rotating Quiz: Operant Conditioning

Question 1 of 6
Q1: Taking aspirin to remove a headache is an example of:
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Negative punishment
Q2: Slot machines use which schedule of reinforcement?
Fixed-interval
Fixed-ratio
Variable-interval
Variable-ratio
Q3: Reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior is called:
Generalization
Discrimination
Shaping
Modeling
Q4: Taking away a teenager’s phone for breaking curfew is:
Negative punishment
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Positive reinforcement
Q5: Which schedule produces the HIGHEST rate of responding and greatest resistance to extinction?
Fixed-ratio
Variable-ratio
Fixed-interval
Variable-interval
Q6: A child cleans their room to stop their parent’s nagging. This is:
Positive reinforcement
Positive punishment
Negative punishment
Negative reinforcement
Learning: Observational & Cognitive

Observational Learning (Bandura)

Key Concepts – Click to Reveal

Observational Learning
Learning by watching and imitating others (also called social learning or modeling). Demonstrated by Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment where children imitated aggressive behavior they observed.
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Mirror Neurons
Brain cells that fire both when performing an action AND when observing another perform that action. May underlie imitation and empathy.
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Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but isn’t apparent until there’s an incentive to demonstrate it. Tolman’s rats learned maze layout even without reinforcement, showing it only when food was introduced.
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Insight Learning
Sudden realization of a problem’s solution (the “aha!” moment). Kohler’s chimps suddenly realized they could stack boxes or use sticks to reach bananas.
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Intrinsic Motivation
Desire to perform a behavior for its own sake (personal satisfaction). Example: Playing piano because you love music, not for applause.
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Extrinsic Motivation
Desire to perform a behavior to receive external rewards or avoid punishment. Example: Studying to get good grades or avoid parents’ anger.
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Bandura’s Conditions for Effective Observational Learning

  • Attention: Must pay attention to the model
  • Retention: Must remember the behavior observed
  • Reproduction: Must be physically able to reproduce the behavior
  • Motivation: Must have motivation/incentive to perform the behavior

Rotating Quiz: All Learning Types

Question 1 of 5
Q1: Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment demonstrated:
Classical conditioning
Observational learning
Operant conditioning
Insight learning
Q2: Learning that occurs but isn’t demonstrated until there’s an incentive is:
Insight learning
Observational learning
Latent learning
Classical conditioning
Q3: Animals reverting to biologically predisposed patterns is called:
Instinctive drift
Preparedness
Learned helplessness
Spontaneous recovery
Q4: Garcia’s research on taste aversion showed that biological constraints:
Don’t affect learning
Only affect operant conditioning
Make all associations equally easy
Make some associations easier to learn than others
Q5: When external rewards decrease intrinsic motivation, this is the:
Undermining effect
Overjustification effect
Extrinsic effect
Motivation paradox